The Body as Evidence

  

 Although all humans are of the same species, with the same overall body parts, there are a number of attributes that are specific to each individual, even in the case of identical twins. These specifics come in handy when it comes to solving crimes.

During grad school, I had the good fortune of completing a Directed Independent Study at the C.A. Pound Human Identification Lab, located on the outskirts of the University of Florida campus. I trained under the assistant director, Dr. Michael Warren, who would go on to play a leading forensic role in the infamous Casey Anthony trial. The training was meant to supplement my studies in bioarchaeology, for both forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology utilize many of the same techniques. Both specialties rely on the examination of the skeleton; however, bioarchaeology deals with ancient remains while forensics focuses on contemporary deaths – typically those occurring within the past fifty years.

Working at the Pound Lab was a great experience. Each day, Michael would pull a box from the back shelves where the old cases reside and I would set to work on the remains, placing the bones in anatomical order, determining the age, sex, and height of the person, and noting any pathologies and unique identifiers, such as dental work or skeletal anomalies. From X-raying decapitated heads to defleshing a young girl, my work at the lab provided an up-close-and-personal glimpse of forensic science (along with a few cases of the dry heaves).

So I thought we would explore how our bodies serve as evidence – not as victims, but as perpetrators. Let’s examine the clues our bodies leave behind.

Say you commit a heinous crime, one that includes the deadly duo of rape and murder. There are myriad ways you can be linked to that crime. Let’s start with the tried-and-true method, fingerprints.

No two people share the same fingerprint. Even identical twins, who have the same DNA, will have differences in their fingerprints, since the “friction ridge skin,” as it is known in professional circles, is a result of many environmental factors, such as bone growth and conditions within the womb. And although Sir William James Herschel is credited with being the first to use fingerprints as a means of identification back in 1858, it seems the Chinese were about two thousand years ahead of the curve.

In “The Volume of Crime Scene Investigation - Burglary,” dated to around 200 B.C., the Chinese mention the use of handprints as evidence. They were also using fingerprints on clay seals to secure documents, which is pretty clever, considering they wouldn’t invent paper for another three hundred years.

It wasn’t until 1892 that fingerprints were first used to solve a homicide. That accomplishment goes to Argentina, whose Buenos Aires sleuths relied on prints to solve the Rojas murder case in which the mother of two brutally slain boys eventually confessed after her bloody fingerprint was identified at the crime scene.

But fingerprints are just the start of the biological trail. Let’s talk semen.

There are usually about two hundred million sperm swimming within a single ejaculate, making it the perfect fluid for DNA analysis. Even individuals who can’t produce sperm (aspermiacs) and those who have been clipped (vasectomized) can still be identified based on their seminal fluid. The test for semen at a crime scene is cheerfully known as “The Christmas Tree Stain,” since the reagents stain the sperm in blues, greens, and reds. Once the sperm are recovered, the DNA packed within each little swimmer can be matched to a culprit.

But semen is just one of several bodily fluids used in identification. Blood is another popular means of narrowing down, or eliminating, suspects. By identifying the grouping (A, B, O, or AB), the presence of Rhesus antigens (Rh factor), and certain genes, investigators are able to match or disqualify an individual based on their results.

Saliva is another common fluid recovered at crime scenes. It can be found on the victim, as can bite marks, or left on objects such as cigarette butts, glasse,s or cans of soda, and is another valuable source of DNA. But bodily fluids, which fall under the specialty of “forensic serology,” also include anything excreted or secreted from the body, including urine, vomit, oils from the skin, and feces.

And let’s not forget about hair. The human body sports around five million hair follicles. On average, we lose around one hundred hairs per day. The length and quality of the hair is based on the region of the body from which it sprouts and ancestry dictates whether it is light, dark, straight, or kinky. Microscopic characteristics of hair enable investigators to differentiate between individuals and to determine whether the hair has been chemically altered, thus providing another link between suspect and crime scene.

Whether it’s semen, blood, spit, or hair, our bodies, as living organisms, leave behind a biological trail. And as the science of forensics becomes more exact, that trail becomes easier to follow.

Something to think about the next time murder crosses your mind…

Here's the Smithsonian's excellent interactive website on forensic anthropology.

Enjoy and I'll see you next week!

Tales from the Poo...

They say big things come in small packages. This is certainly the case with archaeology. We can take the smallest bit of evidence – a fragment of bone, a shard of pottery – and extract a wealth of information from the pieces of human history buried within the archaeological record. And one of these small parcels of the past offers an array of cultural, biological and environmental information. I’m referring to ancient poo.

Since we’ve already explored the myriad ways humans emit odor (last week’s Why We Stink!), I felt it only natural to highlight one of our smellier byproducts, feces. And from the standpoint of a bioarchaeologist, who relies on ancient skeletons to piece together history’s complex puzzle, I’ve developed a respect and admiration for the excrement of yore. So let’s take a look at these piles from the past, otherwise known as “paleofeces.”

Everything we consume traverses the long and winding road of our GI tract, providing nutrients and energy along the way before being deposited as waste. Just as people poo today, they were pooing in the past, and occasionally, a lucky archaeologist will stumble upon a pile. Lo and behold, a window to the past is thrown open.

Paleofeces are commonly called “coprolites,” a term coined by geologist William Buckland back in the 19^th century as he led the charge in dinosaur discoveries. He not only discovered dinosaur bones, he also identified their monstrous mounds of manure and today, paleontologists around the world devote whole careers to the study of dino dung.

But we’re going to home in on the human version of these exotic treasure troves and explore the variety of information gleaned from ancient turds.

I bet you’re wondering how a pile of poo can be preserved for thousands, or even millions, of years. Well, like any bit of archaeological data, the conditions must be ripe for preservation. In the case of paleofeces, they manage to survive when they become desiccated (dried out) or fossilized (turned to stone). As the poo dries and hardens, its contents become fixed. The poo must then be reconstituted, or restored to its original consistency, which is done using special solutions that help preserve what’s tucked inside. Interestingly, as the poo is reconstituted, not only does it offer up its contents, it also emits its original odor!

Once the poo is soft and pliable, the investigation can begin.

For anyone who has ever eaten whole-kernel corn, you know that the kernels magically reappear in your excrement (my fellow firefighters referred to them as “tracers”). The study of paleofeces works on this same principle, for ancient poo reveals a lot about the foods that were consumed, especially plants. Pollen helps us identify the plant species, as do the phytoliths, the portion of the plant composed of silica, which resists decay (and digestion). And why are plants important? Plant consumption not only tells us about diet (what people were eating), and environment (what conditions they experienced), it also helps us reconstruct when domestication took place in different parts of the world. By identifying the plants and then dating the poo, we can obtain the “when” and “where” of agriculture.

But plants aren’t the only things recovered from paleofeces. In many cases, critters are lurking from within, mainly in the form of parasites.

Parasites are organisms that take up residence on or within a host, drawing nutrients (at the host’s expense) in order to stay alive and reproduce. Since many parasites occupy the gastrointestinal tract, they are passed out of the body during defecation where they can then be spread to new hosts (which is why hand washing is so vital). When parasites are discovered in paleofeces, they provide information about health and nutrition among ancient populations (it’s hard to be healthy with a belly full of worms). The study of ancient parasites has become so popular it has now evolved into its own specialty: paleoparasitology. 

Along with plants and parasites, we also find the bones of animals, and even DNA, when we’re lucky.

So where do we find these valuable little nuggets? They show up in the ground, in ancient latrines, in mummified corpses, and even in the bog bodies of northern Europe. And they’re providing a vast array of information about our past.

Evidence for people in North America was pushed back a few thousand years when a fourteen-thousand-year-old pile of poo was discovered in Oregon. And the earliest evidence for the domestication of dogs came from human coprolites in Texas, dating to over nine thousand years old. Unfortunately, the dog ended up on the menu, but it’s still a cool discovery. And in a bit of poetic justice for critters, the oldest known human hair was recently discovered in of all things, a crusty little hyena turd recovered from a cave in South Africa.

All that from simple dung.

But you don’t have to be an archaeologist to appreciate the value (and beauty) of ancient poo. Thanks to some inventive jewelry designers, you can now adorn yourself or your loved one with dino droppings. So the next time that birthday or anniversary rolls around, say “I love you” with a bit of biological bling.

Who says you can’t polish a turd?...

Related posts:

Fecal Foes

From Oral to Anal: A Gastrointestinal Journey

HAPPY 4TH OF JULY!

Why We Stink!

Humans can be a stinky species. Let’s face it, our bodies are quite adept at producing odors, many of them fairly rank. From orifices to crooks and crevices, our bodies give off a range of scents that can titillate or torment, depending upon conditions.

One of the most odoriferous places I’ve ever encountered is the London Underground. During the summer of 2002, I was completing my museum internship at the Natural History Museum and was a frequent traveler aboard the Tube. And because London is such a multicultural city, its public transportation provides a vast range of bodily aromas. B.O. abounded, as did the smell of unwashed hair and feet. Cooking spices lingered on breath and skin, intensified by the stifling heat of the subway, making it feel as if we were trapped in a steaming pot of tandoori. When the train finally screeched to a stop and the doors flew open, fresh air would rush in as the aromatic mob rushed out.

We’ve already covered the intricate dance between nose and brain in October’s Something Smells, so I thought we would explore our body’s amazing ability to produce odor. Let’s start at the head and work our way down…

We’ve all experienced bad breath (either personally or in our partner), especially in the morning, when the bacteria that infiltrate our mouths have had hours to multiply unchecked. Those bacteria, if left to their own devices, can cause gum disease, which in turn can cause chronic bad breath, technically known as halitosis. But gum disease is only one cause of a stinky mouth. What you eat can also affect your breath, especially foods that stink on their own. Onion and garlic not only pass through your mouth and down your gullet, they are also absorbed by your bloodstream where they travel to your lungs and are eventually exhaled. Not a good scenario if intimacy is on the agenda.

Other harbingers of halitosis include conditions such as diabetes and acid reflux, poor fitting dentures that trap food, and the worst offense of all – SMOKING!! Not only are you destroying your lungs, you’re also destroying the nasal passages of those you kiss. There’s nothing worse than French kissing an ashtray.

Moving down the body, we arrive at those classic stinkers, the armpits. Your body has two types of sweat glands which serve two different functions: the eccrine glands, which cover most of your body, and the apocrine glands that reside beneath the hairier regions, such as the armpits and groin. As your body heats up, the eccrines cool you down by secreting fluid onto the surface of your skin. The apocrines, however, are triggered by stress and respond by producing a milky fluid into your hair follicles. Although the fluid is odorless, it blends with bacteria on your skin to produce that common and oh-so-pungent aroma, body odor.

Moving south, we arrive at the genitals. Here, our paths diverge, for odor in the nether regions depends on whether you sport a penis or a vagina. They each have their own aromatic obstacles.

Women are all too familiar with issues of odor, for whenever you possess a warm, moist, cavity, sooner or later, it’s going to stink. Normal sweating and fluctuations in your menstrual cycle can cause odor, but if it persists, bacteria are probably to blame. The most common cause of vaginal odor is a lovely condition known as bacterial vaginosis – an uprising of the normally occurring bacteria in which they overrun the V, leading to a smelly situation. Poor hygiene can also cause a stench, and many women respond by douching 'til the cows come home. Big mistake. Douching can lead to other problems by further upsetting the bacterial tug-of-war. A bit of advice: if you smell like the docks, it’s time to call your doc.

And although you guys are vagina-free, it doesn’t mean you can pass the smell test. Remember our buddies, the apocrines? They kick into overdrive when you’re emotionally stressed (or excited!) and the furrier you are down there, the more apt you are to smell. What do the experts recommend? You can bump up your personal hygiene routine, wear loose clothing (preferably cotton), and whip out the hedge clippers to keep things tidy. 

We finally arrive at the feet. Yes, foot odor is a common malady and even has a super-scientific name: bromodosis. Feet stink because feet sweat. In fact, there are more sweat glands on our feet than anywhere else on our bodies! And the more we sweat, the more we stink. To make matters worse, some folks suffer from hyperhidrosis, aka, excessive sweating.

But just like our smelly mouths, pits, and genitalia, there are remedies for smelly feet. Changing your shoes, wearing cotton socks, and using powder to absorb moisture can thwart foot odor. In fact, all of these stinky situations can be remedied with proper hygiene.

Your body is a complex organism, fueled by millions of chemical reactions taking place as you eat, sleep, and go about your daily routine. So it’s no surprise that some of those reactions produce funky smells.

So brush your teeth, take a shower, trim your hairy regions, and change your shoes and you too can be odor free. Your body - and those around you - will thank you.


Catch you next week!

The Evolution of the Bra

 

This morning while I was getting dressed, I realized that throughout my entire adult life, I’ve worn the same type of bra. It’s really a grownup version of a training bra: stretchy material that comfortably conforms to that most difficult of female physiques – the broad-shouldered, small-breasted tomboy variety.

For years, I’ve pumped and swum my way to a sturdy, muscular frame. Of course, much of that was dictated by the thirteen years I spent as a firefighter-paramedic, where I hoisted myriad tools, equipment, and patients on a regular basis. And even having left the field of emergency services, I still adhere to a rigorous workout regime.

But all those years of working out did little for the development of my female upper regions. Alas, I still sport the chest of a prepubescent teen and shall forever be relegated to the training bra.

Bras have truly evolved over the centuries. They are a reflection of fashion, function, and sexuality and are designed to lift, support, and separate those most essential female accoutrements, the boobies. So I thought it’d be fun to travel back in time and witness the evolution of this imperative undergarment. Let’s take a look…

Bras were believed to have evolved over the last hundred years: a result of women's kicking their corsets to the curb after centuries of miserable cinching. But in 2008, a couple of archaeologists stumbled upon four linen brassieres tucked within an Austrian castle dating back to the 1400s, pushing the invention of the bra back another five hundred years. These ancient undergarments resemble their modern counterparts, some even sporting intricate decorations of lace. They’re tattered and torn, calling to mind men’s jockey shorts, which are traditionally worn until they disintegrate.

In 1913, a corseted Mary Jacob was wrestling her way into a frock when she decided there had to be a better way. Using a ribbon and two handkerchiefs, she constructed a rudimentary bra (use your imagination), squishing and flattening her breasts into what is described in the literature as a “monobosom” (again, use your imagination). Word of her handy-dandy invention quickly spread , so a year later she patented her creation and capitalized on her busty achievement.

Around this time, World War I was winding down and the corset was on its way out. The metal that lined those miserable contraptions was needed for ammunition and tanks, so women everywhere gratefully complied. Styles were changing, too. The curvaceous figures of the corseted era were being replaced by the boyish, flat-chested flappers of the Jazz Age (damn, I would have been popular). Women were chopping their hair and shortening their skirts. They didn’t have time to mess with corsets. Besides, when you’re up all night drinking bootleg whisky and bebopping to Louis Armstrong, breasts just get in the way.

In 1922, in a small dress shop in New York, Enid Bissett, along with Ida and William Rosenthal, were hard at work perfecting what would become the modern bra. They devised a two-cup device that was held together with elastic and sewn into the dresses they designed. They soon realized they were sitting on a gold mine, so they stripped the bras from their dresses, sold them outright, and the Maidenform Bra was born! Since women come in all shapes and sizes, they devised the alphabetical designation for cups. The letter is based on how many ounces of booby the cup will hold: “A,” about eight ounces; “B,” thirteen; “C” can contain twenty-one bodacious ounces; and the daddy of all cups, “D,” can hold a whopping twenty-seven. That’s a lot of breast! I wonder where my bras rank?... I’m thinkin’ somewhere in the tablespoon realm.

An interesting side note: It was the American author, Mark Twain, of Huckleberry Finn fame, who devised the oh-so-clever elastic strap and metal clasps. He envisioned applying his elastic-clasp combo to an array of undergarments, but the pantaloons industry was in its death throes, so he stuck to bras.

But I digress...

About forty years later, human ingenuity took another giant leap forward. No, I’m not talking about the moon landing, I’m talking about the invention of the Wonderbra. With streamlined cups and a plethora of padding, even the “A” -leaguers could sport a bit of cleavage. But the real breakthrough came in 1977 when Roy Raymond founded Victoria’s Secret. Although Frederick’s of Hollywood had been around since the 1940s, many were too embarrassed to venture inside. Victoria’s Secret provided a safe haven for the bashful; and their catalogs, masturbation fodder for teenage boys everywhere.

But have you every stopped to ask yourself why?? Why do we wear bras? And more importantly, why do we consider “the natural look” obscene? Yes, bras hold everything in place, which becomes more important as the years tick by, but it’s disturbing that something as natural as unfettered breasts is deemed lewd and indecent.

I’m sure the menfolk would be in favor of a braless revolution. As for me, I’d participate, but I doubt anyone would notice…

 Me as a kid. Not much has changed...:)